Rudolf Hess
Rudolf Hess: A Mysterious Death, a Neo-Nazi Hero
On May 10, 1941, some 500 German bombers attacked London. Having failed to defeat Britain from the air six months earlier, the Luftwaffe sent a massive formation to strike back. That same day, another aircraft flew from Germany toward Britain. At the controls was Nazi Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess. But he did not know he would remain a prisoner from that day onward, or that decades later neo-Nazis would turn him into a legendary figure.
W. R. Hess, Rudolf Hess's son: "During his lifetime, Father said he would never support what the neo-Nazis were doing. He said it was misguided and only harmed Germany. So far from being pleased to be their hero, he called them fools."
(Hess speaking before Hitler): “Our Führer is Germany itself. When he acts and decides, the people follow him without limit.”
(T. Le Tissier, then director of Spandau Prison): “Hess felt absolutely no remorse or regret for his past or for what the Nazis had done. His stubborn attitude never changed until he died. He simply went on justifying himself. So he was not someone I could like.”
(Hitler’s adjutant at the time, R. Spitzy) ‘Even when he was close to Hitler, those around him considered him quite eccentric. He sometimes said strange things or drifted into fantasies. At one point he trusted a dubious herbalist and became obsessed with dietary treatments.’
(Hess speaking before Hitler): “The party is Hitler. Hitler and Germany are forever one. Hail victory.”
Early Life
〈Alexandria, Egypt〉
Rudolf Hess was born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1894. Both parents were intensely patriotic Germans. His father was a successful merchant, and the family was very wealthy. His mother always treated Rudolf kindly, while his stern father tolerated no backtalk.
S. Camora, a friend of Hess in his youth: "The Hess family placed great importance on German pride and patriotism. Their home and way of life felt entirely German. His particularly patriarchal father displayed a portrait of Kaiser Wilhelm II on the wall facing his office. On the emperor's birthday, they opened wine and everyone prayed for his health."
At their father's insistence, the Hess family always spent summers at their holiday home in Germany. He had decided that his eldest son Rudolf would succeed him, without even asking what Rudolf wanted. Unaccustomed to rebellion, Rudolf eventually realized with distress that he was not suited to being a merchant.
(Hess's sister-in-law I. Pröhl): “On his father's orders, he trained as a merchant in Hamburg until he was twenty. But eventually he defied his father's wishes and chose his own path.”
The times also favored Rudolf. With the outbreak of the First World War, the German emperor ordered mobilization. Rudolf persuaded those around him that volunteering was worthwhile even if it meant defying his father. Raised in patriotism from childhood, the young man found unprecedented joy on the battlefield.
Serving in an infantry regiment, Hess fought on the Western Front with bravery that earned him a decoration. At twenty, he was captivated by war. He wrote his parents letters glorifying it, describing burning villages as movingly beautiful.
But then came defeat. Having lost his bearings, Hess spent his days searching for direction at Munich University. Professor Haushofer's ideas on geopolitics and living space, which he encountered there, would later influence Nazi ideology. At this point, however, he did not yet know of Hitler. Hess was deeply shocked when the German emperor abdicated in the revolution of 1918.
“The revolution of 1918 first awakened my hatred of the Jews. The revolution was their conspiracy.”
Unconditional Obedience to Hitler
It did not take long for Hess's nationalist ideas to lead him to Hitler. In 1920, he swore unconditional obedience to Adolf Hitler. He was the sixteenth Party member. In the Nazis' infancy, Hess worked tirelessly to expand the SA's ranks. The early Nazis aimed to seize power through violence. For Hess, riots were a grand stage to replace the battlefield. His reputation for recklessness pleased Hitler. At Nazi ceremonies honoring their dead, he always strode in the front rank.
Hitler's voice: [The soldiers who fell in the early disturbances. Without their devotion, Germany would have had no future.]
The first incident to claim many victims was the Munich Putsch of 1923. The attempted coup failed, and Hess was arrested as one of its leaders.
“Hess and my sister Ilse were comrades, so my sister and I somehow managed to visit him in Landsberg Prison. Although it was a prison, it was fairly comfortable, and you could talk at leisure in the visiting room. The police guards were lenient too, sometimes dozing in a corner.” (I. Bröhl, younger sister of Hess's wife Ilse)
In prison, Hess unexpectedly gained time to converse with Hitler, the leader he adored. He undertook to take down Mein Kampf from Hitler's dictation. “I respect and love him more than ever,” Hess wrote to his sweetheart Ilse.
Feeding on the anxieties of the age, the Nazis resumed their activities. After his release, Hess rejected offers of employment and devoted himself to rebuilding the Party. His new title was Hitler's personal secretary. At every rally and parade during this period, Hess stood behind Hitler, looking up to his leader.
“Hess maintained absolute obedience to Hitler with almost foolish stubbornness. To him, the Führer was his lifelong mentor and a sacred savior.” (E. Hanfstaengl, son of Hitler's press adviser)
Marriage to Ilse
In 1927, Hess married Ilse, his lover of eight years and a fellow comrade.
“My sister and Hess were both reserved. They never rushed into passion or hurried to marry. But people urged them to settle down quickly because these were dangerous times.” (I. Pröhl, younger sister of Hess’s wife Ilse)
Hitler witnessed the wedding. His wife, herself a Party member, tolerated her husband's devotion to Hitler. Eventually, news arrived from her husband as he traveled about.
'Dream or reality, I am now with Hitler in his office in the Chancellery.' [January 1933: Hitler's cabinet formed.]
At this point Hess was promoted to Nazi Deputy Führer.
The party's image of integrity
＜The film Words in Stone, 1939: Germany on the march renews the city of Munich.＞
A construction boom. The massive party headquarters that appeared in Munich seemed to embody Nazi megalomania.
＜March 1933: the Enabling Act passes. Hitler renders parliament powerless.＞
Trade unions were dissolved. Dissident books were burned, and nonresistance and obedience gradually spread through a society riddled with repression and violence. The model of obedience was the Deputy Führer himself. Yet from around this time, the influence of Hitler's loyal subordinate Hess began a gradual decline.
"As Deputy Führer of the Nazi Party, Hess appeared second only to Hitler. In reality, once Hitler gained power, the party's popular mandate and influence steadily declined. Hitler could govern Germany without relying heavily on the party. Some aides regarded the Nazis as merely a choral society stirring up worship of the Führer." (R. Spitzy, then Hitler's adjutant)
As enormous power concentrated in Hitler's hands, some comrades demanded their share, unlike the loyal Hess. The most openly power-hungry was SA leader Röhm, an old comrade who addressed Hitler familiarly. Yet in 1934 Röhm was shot, branded a traitor.
⟨“The SA has remained loyal to the Führer. The Führer, in turn, responds to them with integrity. The guilty have been punished. The relationship between the SA and the Führer is unchanged.” (Note: Hess's words)⟩
A fierce game of power. The title Deputy Führer glittered, but Hess was gradually overtaken. Hitler wanted capable administrative specialists; Hess was essentially a Party activist. What he liked was inspiring crowds with the Party’s ideals, as in this speech to Germans living abroad.
‘The many gathered here are members of the great German people. The strength of the German national community extends beyond borders. You demonstrate that fact. Germany will continue moving forward, with Adolf Hitler.’ (Note: Hess’s speech)
On the podium, Hess radiated an almost religious fervor.
"We shall now take the oath. We firmly swear loyalty to Adolf Hitler. To the Führer and the leaders he appoints, we swear unconditional obedience."
"Hess was a convenient figurehead for the party. No one was as single-mindedly devoted to Hitler or as free of ulterior motives. An ordinary but faithful servant was extremely useful." (R. Spitzy, then Hitler's adjutant)
Compared with other close associates who surrounded themselves with followers and enriched themselves, Hess was indeed incorruptible. His life was modest, almost lower-middle-class. He neither drank nor smoked, and apart from occasions such as his son's birthday, visitors were rare. Adolf Hitler's signature appears in the visitors' book.
Kristallnacht, of Which He Was Not Informed
[November 9, 1938: Kristallnacht. In retaliation for the assassination of a German diplomat, the SA attacked Jews.]
"It was his son's first birthday. Preparations were complete, and we were waiting for everyone to gather. I remember him entering the room looking gloomy. He was pale. Everyone anxiously asked why, and that was how we learned of the attacks on Jews. But we quickly understood why he was upset: he was appalled that it had been done without his knowledge." (H. Fath, then Hess's private secretary)
But Hess was not uninvolved in Nazi persecution of Jews. Whenever racist legislation passed, he signed it as a minister. Jewish doctors and lawyers were banned from practicing. Harsh penalties were introduced for Jews in Poland.
“Hess was fully complicit in the Nazi crimes of that era. He was completely uncritical of the Party and tried to prevent others around him from criticizing it. His loyalty to Hitler did not change even when the Führer himself began to neglect him. If anything, it became pure to an almost uncanny degree.” (A. Hamburger, a participant in Party rallies at the time)
As his opportunities to see Hitler diminished, Hess began complaining of physical ailments. When the pro-German Duke of Windsor visited from Britain, Hess believed friendship with Britain had been secured. But pro-German sympathizers were only a minority there. Hess could not distinguish appearances from reality in foreign relations. Hitler did not base diplomacy on friendship. He threatened war to extract extensive concessions from Europe's nations.
[September 1938: Munich Agreement. Germany obtained British, French, and Italian agreement to the cession of the Sudetenland.]
"My brother-in-law Hess was often highly strung and could appear **** (note: inaudible). He took care of his health and followed a peculiar restorative routine every evening. After dinner he lay stretched out straight on his bed without moving for about fifteen minutes. Afterward he would be completely changed, full of energy again." (I. Bröhl, younger sister of Hess's wife Ilse)
Demotion
As war loomed, Hess took little part in government and had virtually withdrawn from public life. The Deputy Führer firmly proclaimed his commitment to peace, probably unaware of the Führer's true intentions.
“The Führer has repeatedly declared his desire for peace. His firm resolve will awaken neighboring nations and surely bear fruit. Soldiers at the front are also calling for peace.” (Note: Hess's speech)
[September 1939: Germany invades Poland, leading into World War II.]
Hitler's plan succeeded. In a lightning campaign, German troops swept across all Poland. As war began, Hitler made an important statement about the Party hierarchy.
“Should anything happen to me, Göring is my successor. After him comes Hess.” (Note: Hitler's voice)
For the Deputy Führer, this amounted to a declaration of demotion.
〈May 1940: invasion of France; conquered in six weeks〉
Even Hitler, who had defeated France so easily, hesitated over strategy against Britain. He wanted to leave room for peace negotiations.
‘Germany has repeatedly shown friendship toward Britain. Friendship cannot be offered by one side alone.’
The spectacular early advances deepened Hitler's confidence. To force Churchill to make peace, Germany launched air raids on Britain. But hopes that the enemy would quickly change its position proved unfounded, and the struggle against Britain became a burden on the German armed forces.
“One day Hess was invited to a meal at the Reich Chancellery. Toward the end, one of Hitler’s subordinates came in to report: ‘Britain has no intention of responding.’ I did not understand at the time, but he must have meant peace negotiations. Hitler said, ‘Well, I can hardly go over there and grovel.’ Hess heard those words.” (R. Misch, then a soldier at Hitler’s headquarters)
Seeking Peace and Parting Forever from Hitler
As discussion in the Reich Chancellery became entirely military, the isolated Hess visited his mentor, Professor Haushofer, who had instilled in him the concept of living space. Their conversation remains a mystery, but Hess suddenly resolved to go alone to Britain and seek an opening for peace. Without Hitler’s permission, this would constitute high treason, yet he revealed his decision to no one.
"He dictated the speech to me, so I understood he was trying to approach prominent British figures. I wanted to know how he would do it, but when the dictation ended, Hess told me never to reveal anything about the manuscript." (L. Schroeder, then Hess's secretary)
Hess visited an armaments factory to obtain an aircraft, naturally keeping his intentions strictly secret.
"Deputy Führer Hess said he wanted to prove to the Führer that he could also serve as an airman. He wanted to make a rather long flight and asked us to provide an aircraft. We had no reason to refuse, so we made the preparations without suspicion." (F. Voss, then a test pilot)
[May 4, 1941] May 4, 1941 was the last day Deputy Führer Hess appeared in public.
“With this unparalleled victory in the southeast, the Führer has taken revenge on Churchill.”
Having stumbled in the war against Britain, Hitler planned to reverse direction and invade the Soviet Union a month later. Hess met him once more at the Reich Chancellery. They spoke for four hours, but Hitler did not discover Hess's plan. Did Hess realize that this would be his final farewell to the Führer?
A Solo Flight to Britain
On May 10, 1941, Hess undertook his solo flight to Britain. His destination was the Duke of Hamilton’s country house in Scotland. He had only met the duke at the Berlin Olympics; they were not close. But Hess hoped the man would convey his intentions to the British government. Ironically, the Duke of Hamilton commanded air defenses in Scotland. Yet Hess was fortunate. Avoiding interception and shaking off pursuit, he reached his destination.
“We spotted the enemy aircraft, but it flew past so fast and so high that we could not intercept it and had to give up. Still, as it was only one aircraft, we thought it could not do much damage.” (S. Johnston, then serving in Britain's antiaircraft defenses)
Hess boldly leaped into an uncertain future. His parachute landed only a few kilometers from his intended destination. Hitler was at his mountain residence at the time. Hess's farewell letter was delivered there.
"Hitler was speechless: 'Why on earth would Hess do such a thing?' It caused an incredible commotion. We had no idea what had happened or how to respond. We did not even know whether Hess was safe until information began leaking from Britain." (R. Misch, then a soldier at Hitler's headquarters)
Hess's crashed aircraft. From the moment he decided to land, his calculations went badly wrong. Local militia captured and detained him. Giving a false name, Hess requested a meeting with the Duke of Hamilton.
"The Duke of Hamilton and the others arrived at midnight. I led them to the man I was guarding, then withdrew. But I was so intrigued that I placed a hand mirror above the door to watch what happened. I sensed he was someone very important and that a crucial meeting was about to take place. The man—Hess—sat up in bed and talked animatedly." (R. Shaw, then a British military security officer)
London, the next day. Around the time of Hess's flight, the Luftwaffe launched a major air raid. The city was in chaos. Churchill was consumed by the response and had not yet even been told of the incident in Scotland.
“My father went to Prime Minister Churchill and told him everything. Churchill was apparently astonished: ‘Are you telling me that Hitler's deputy is being held here now?’ My father said the man had identified himself as Rudolf Hess. But Churchill said, ‘Whether it is true or not, I am going to watch a film,’ and left.” (J. Hamilton, son of the Duke of Hamilton)
Failure — Attempted Suicide
Meanwhile, at Hitler's mountain residence, discussions of how to respond dragged on. How would the Allies interpret Hess's actions? Hitler decided to disown Hess.
〈‘At about 6 p.m. on Saturday, May 10, Party member Hess took off alone and has not returned to this day. Judging by the incoherent contents of the letter he left, he has regrettably suffered a mental derangement. The Führer immediately issued orders, and Hess's aide was arrested.’〉 (Note: radio news audio)
"After that incident, the Gestapo detained us and showed us his letter. It may have been a copy rather than the original, but it was his farewell letter to the Führer. One passage was moving. He wrote, 'Please do not blame my subordinates, my adjutants, my driver or anyone else for this.' Hess was concerned that the Führer's unpredictable anger might fall on his staff." (H. Fath, then Hess's private secretary)
Hess was taken to London. But this unexpected visitor was an inconvenience for Britain. Churchill feared that the Soviet government would think he was bargaining with Nazi Germany. Hess was abandoned by the leaders on both sides of the sea.
[June 1941: German troops invade the Soviet Union; a two-front war begins.]
After the German-Soviet war began, Hess's affair faded from Hitler's mind. No one was appointed to the vacant post of Deputy Führer. Hitler no longer needed a deputy. Martin Bormann, formerly Hess's subordinate, became an important member of Hitler's inner circle.
(Former Armaments Minister Speer, recalling events): “If Hess were handed over, the Führer intended to have him immediately charged with treason and sentenced to death.”
A letter Hess wrote to Hitler from detention acknowledged his failure. Tormented by what he had done wrong, Hess attempted suicide.
The Nuremberg Trials and Testimony
⟨Nuremberg⟩
Four years later, Germany lay in ruins. In the city that had once hosted Nazi Party rallies, the Allies put Hitler's aides on trial for war crimes. For Hess, those four years were virtually a blank.
“The defendants in court looked so shabby that none seemed like the powerful men they had once been. There was no trace of the days when they controlled the country. They all looked thin and shrunken.” (S. von Paczensky, then a spectator at the trial)
Hess too was tried as a war criminal in this court.
“There is concern that the defendant may be unfit to stand trial.” (Note: Court audio)
At first Hess falsely claimed to have lost his memory. Two weeks later, however, his attitude suddenly changed.
‘I shall personally rebut the opinion that I am unfit to stand trial. My claim of amnesia was deliberate.’ (Note: Hess’s testimony at his trial)
Ultimately, Hess was sentenced to life imprisonment.
“Looking back, that sentence against Hess may have been too harsh.” (W. Jackson, then an American prosecutor)
Hess's final testimony after the verdict.
“I was able to spend many years of my life under the greatest of men—the greatest hero German history has ever produced. Even if I could live again, I would not wish to erase that era. I say with joy that I fulfilled my duty: as a German who loves his country, as a National Socialist, as a faithful subordinate of the Führer. I regret nothing.”
The Last, Solitary Prisoner
[Berlin-Spandau Prison]
Imprisoned former Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess withdrew further into himself. He did not socialize even with the Nazi officials imprisoned alongside him.
In 1966, former senior officials who had served twenty-year prison sentences walked free: Schirach, former Reich leader of the Hitler Youth, and Albert Speer, armaments minister in the final years of the war. Hess was at last the only prisoner remaining.
"When Speer and the others were released after serving twenty years, we appealed widely for a pardon for my father. On hearing this, he wrote to us. Along with his thanks, he said: 'My honor stands higher than my freedom.'" (W. R. Hess, Rudolf Hess's son)
Until 1969, Hess refused visits from his family. Alone, he devoted himself to studying the tropics. Time passed, but Hess's calendar did not move forward.
“When he became very old, we put a modern hospital bed in his room. Its height could be adjusted, making getting in and out easier. We also allowed a hotplate so that he could warm food. He had a considerable appetite for his age and specified what he wanted to eat and how it should be cooked. He used no salt, for his health. He also liked television, especially tennis and football.” (T. Le Tissier, then director of Spandau Prison)
The former Allied powers took monthly turns guarding Spandau Prison. Elaborate security, now for just one war criminal.
“The time has come for him to be freed.” (Note: audio from a rally.) In his later years, calls for Hess's pardon on humanitarian grounds grew louder. But the Soviet Union remained the strongest opponent of his release. In 1987, Rudolf Hess was ninety-three.
“In his later years, when I treated Hess, he was always making demands or complaints. He worried terribly about the slightest physical discomfort, constantly saying that this or that hurt. Then one day, at ninety-three, he suddenly stopped complaining. Two or three months later, he killed himself.” (R. Blank, then prison physician)
A Death Still Shrouded in Mystery
〈August 17, 1987: Rudolf Hess dies. The day after his death, his family arrived at Berlin Airport. They are to discuss the return of his body with the Allies.〉 (Note: news footage.)
“I believe my father was murdered, rather than having killed himself. I can roughly infer the motive. Western countries had repeatedly hinted they would permit his release, counting on the Soviets to veto it at the last moment. But Soviet opposition weakened in the 1980s. Certain people therefore tried to eliminate Rudolf Hess before he could be freed.” (Rudolf Hess's son W. R. Hess)
The family’s allegation of murder caused a sensation. They disputed the farewell letter supposedly written just before Hess’s death, calling it a forgery.
“The writing is different from before. Father was a man who valued formality. That letter has no date, and it includes a farewell he had hardly ever used in letters before. The content raises questions too. I cannot accept that he left no farewell for the grandchildren he loved so much.” (Hess's daughter-in-law, Andrea Hess)
Examination of the letter found no evidence of forgery. The family also commissioned an independent autopsy, but questioned the subtle discrepancies between its findings and the Allied account.
"I performed the second autopsy at the family's request, but I do not recall writing anything supporting the murder theory. I found no indication that a third party had been involved in Hess's death." (Professor of forensic medicine W. Spann)
When found, Hess lay collapsed with an electrical cord around his neck.
"The person who claimed to have witnessed it said this: during the month the Americans were on guard, two men on an assassination mission slipped in wearing American uniforms. On August 17, they waited for my father to go for a walk and strangled him with an electrical cord." (Rudolf Hess's son, W. R. Hess)
“Rudolf Hess lay on his back, with two men in military uniform nearby. One was tall and the other short. Both were cold in manner. I find those two men suspicious.” (A. Melaouhi, Hess's nurse at the time)
On the other hand, there is also this testimony.
“I believe I was one of the two people identified as suspicious. At the time, I was beside Hess’s discovered body with medical personnel. I think that caused the misunderstanding.” (A. Ahuja, then an American military security officer)
A Murder Theory Takes on a Life of Its Own: A Neo-Nazi Hero
Without conclusive evidence, the murder theory added mystery and legend to Rudolf Hess's life.
“Whether or not there was any intention behind it, this is a well-constructed mystery. Those who want Rudolf Hess remembered as a legendary figure could hardly wish for a more suitable ending.” (T. Le Tissier, then governor of Spandau Prison)
Rudolf Hess's final flight. Yet the dead would not rest peacefully. He had become a hero to far-right youths calling themselves neo-Nazis. His old speeches and mysterious actions began taking on a life of their own as legend.
“If I could do it all again, I would act in the same way. I have no regrets.” (Note: Hess's voice.)
Just as Hess once placed misguided faith in one man, a misguided faith is now growing around Hess himself.